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title: "Crate Training for Dogs: The Complete Step-by-Step Guide (2026)" slug: "crate-training-for-dogs-the-complete-guide-2026" description: "Evidence-based crate training guide for puppies, adults, and rescue dogs. Step-by-step protocol with age schedules, overnight tips, and anxiety troubleshooting." primary_keyword: "crate training for dogs" secondary_keywords: ["how to crate train a dog", "puppy crate training", "dog crate anxiety", "crate training overnight", "crate training schedule"] target_word_count: 2200 schema_types: ["Article", "FAQPage", "MedicalWebPage", "HowTo"]
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| Anchor Text | Suggested Target | Placement |
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| how to stop puppy biting | how-to-stop-puppy-biting-fast-the-ultimate-guide | Related Articles section |
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| evidence-based training | complete-dog-training-guide-2026 | Intro paragraph context |
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| Anchor Text | URL | Placement |
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| AKC crate training guidelines | akc.org/expert-advice/training/crate-training-step-by-step | Why Crate Training Works section |
| ASPCA crate training | aspca.org/pet-care/dog-care/dog-training | Choosing the Right Crate section |
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| ID | Section | Alt Text | Caption | Image Brief |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| img-1 | Why Crate Training Works | Dog sleeping peacefully in crate showing den comfort | A properly crate-trained dog views their crate as a safe, comfortable den | Dog sleeping inside wire crate, calm expression, blanket visible |
| img-2 | Choosing the Right Crate | Wire and plastic dog crates side by side | Wire crates offer visibility; plastic crates provide den-like feel | Two crate types shown side by side for comparison |
| img-3 | The 5-Phase Introduction | Owner tossing treat into open crate during first phase | Phase 1: let your dog explore the open crate at their own pace | Owner placing treats near and inside open crate, dog approaching |
| img-4 | Crate Training Schedule | Puppy sleeping in crate beside owner bed | Keep the crate in your bedroom for first 1-2 weeks | Puppy in crate placed next to bed, nighttime setting |
| img-5 | Overnight Crate Training | Owner preparing stuffed Kong for crate | A stuffed Kong provides positive association during crate time | Owner stuffing Kong with treats, crate in background |
| img-6 | Crate Anxiety vs Separation Anxiety | Anxious dog in crate versus calm dog alone | Understanding the difference determines the right approach | Split image showing anxious crate behavior vs calm alone behavior |
# OPTIMIZED ARTICLE
# Crate Training for Dogs: The Complete Guide (Evidence-Based, Step-by-Step)
By Dr. Benjamin Hartley, DVM, DACVB · Veterinary Behavior Specialist
Medical Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute veterinary advice. The information presented is based on current evidence as of July 2026 and may evolve as new research emerges. Consult with a qualified veterinarian before making changes to your dog's training regimen.
Quick Answer
- Crate training teaches your dog to view a crate as their personal safe den — not punishment.
- Start with the door open, meals inside, and build duration in minutes — never rush to overnight.
- Puppies can hold their bladder roughly one hour per month of age plus one.
- Early crate exposure before 16 weeks may reduce separation anxiety risk later in life.
- If your dog panics in the crate, you may be dealing with separation anxiety — not a crate training failure.
Not sure where to start? Find your situation below:
| If your dog has... | Go to this section |
|---|---|
| Never been in a crate before | The 5-Phase Introduction |
| Whines or cries at night | Overnight Crate Training |
| Panics when left alone | Crate Anxiety vs Separation Anxiety |
| Is a rescue dog with unknown history | Crate Training an Adult or Rescue Dog |
| Had accidents in the crate | Common Mistakes |
| Is 6+ months and regressing | Common Mistakes: Regression |
Your new puppy is destroying your shoes, chewing baseboards, and getting into the trash every time you leave the house. You know you need a crate — everyone says so — but the idea of locking your dog in a box feels wrong. Maybe you've heard stories of dogs panicking, scratching at crate doors, or refusing to go near one. You're not sure if crate training is cruel or kind, and you definitely don't know where to start.
Here's the short version: crate training, done correctly, is one of the most effective tools for housetraining, preventing destructive behavior, and reducing anxiety. Dogs are den animals by nature — they seek out enclosed spaces for security. A properly introduced crate taps into that instinct, giving your dog a space that feels safe. The catch is that "done correctly" matters enormously. Rush the process, use the crate as punishment, or misread your dog's anxiety signals, and you can create lasting problems. This guide covers the evidence-based approach — for puppies, adult dogs, and rescue dogs — with a step-by-step protocol you can start today.
Why Crate Training Works
Dogs are den animals by nature — a crate taps into a biological instinct, not a training trick.
In the wild, canines seek out small, enclosed spaces for sleeping and rest. This instinct doesn't disappear in domesticated dogs. A properly sized crate mimics the security of a den — one entrance, enclosed walls, a space that belongs to them. This is why many dogs voluntarily curl up under tables, in closets, or behind furniture.
The evidence supports this instinctual framework. A 2024 survey of 1,305 dog owners across 23 countries found that 25.4% of respondents use crates, predominantly for puppies under six months of age. The study, published in Applied Animal Behaviour Science, found that training goals were more easily achieved than behavioral goals when using crates — suggesting crates work best as proactive training tools, not reactive fixes.
Perhaps most compelling is the longitudinal data. A 2024 study from the Generation Pup cohort, published in Animal Welfare, followed 145 puppies and found that those who slept in an enclosed space at 16 weeks of age or younger had significantly decreased odds of developing separation-related behaviors at six months. The researchers hypothesized that overnight spatial restriction prepares puppies for being alone during the day later, creating a gradual bridge between full contact and full independence.
The crate also leverages a powerful housetraining instinct: dogs naturally avoid soiling their sleeping space. A correctly sized crate — just large enough to stand, turn, and lie down — makes this instinct work for you. Your puppy won't eliminate where they sleep, which teaches them to hold their bladder for progressively longer periods.
Did You Know: Puppies who sleep in an enclosed space at 16 weeks of age or younger had decreased odds of developing separation-related behaviors at six months — even after controlling for breed, sex, and owner factors (Generation Pup study, Animal Welfare, 2024).
- Dogs are den animals by nature — crates tap into a real biological instinct
- The den instinct makes crates powerful housetraining tools
- Done right, crate training reduces destructive behavior and anxiety
- Early crate exposure before 16 weeks may prevent separation anxiety
- The crate must always be a positive space — never use it as punishment
Choosing the Right Crate
The crate you choose matters more than most people realize — and the sizing rule is simple.
There are four main crate types, each with genuine advantages depending on your situation:
- Wire crates: Maximum airflow and visibility. Best for dogs who prefer to see their surroundings. Fold flat for storage. Most versatile option for training.
- Plastic/airline-style crates: More enclosed, darker interior. Better for dogs who prefer a cave-like feel. Required for air travel.
- Soft-sided fabric crates: Lightweight and portable. Best for calm, already-trained dogs. Not suitable for puppies or chewers.
- Furniture-style crates: Double as end tables or nightstands. Aesthetic choice — functional but expensive.
The sizing rule is non-negotiable: your dog should be able to stand up without their head touching the top, turn around in a full circle, and lie down fully stretched on their side. Nothing bigger. A crate that's too large defeats the housetraining advantage — your puppy can eliminate in one corner and sleep in another.
For puppies, buy the adult-sized crate and use a divider panel to block off the extra space. Expand the space as your puppy grows. This saves you from buying multiple crates.
Where you place the crate is just as important as which crate you choose. Dogs are social animals. A crate tucked in a spare room or garage increases anxiety rather than reducing it. Place it in the family room or bedroom — wherever your household spends the most time.
Vet Tip: Always remove your dog's collar when they're in the crate. Collars can catch on crate bars, creating a strangulation risk. This is especially important for puppies who may paw at the door.
- Four crate types exist — choose based on your dog's temperament and your use case
- Buy the adult-sized crate and use a divider to block extra space as a puppy
- Place the crate in a busy family area — never isolate your dog
- Always remove your dog's collar when they're in the crate
- A properly sized crate is the single most important factor for success
The 5-Phase Crate Training Introduction
Never rush this process. Each phase builds on the one before it, and skipping steps creates setbacks that take weeks to repair.
This protocol draws from the AKC's 6-step method, ASPCA guidelines, and the Generation Pup research on overnight enclosed spaces. The single most important principle: never advance to the next phase until the current one is calm and boring for your dog.
Phase 1: The Crate Is Just There (Days 1-3)
Place the crate in a room where your family spends time. Leave the door open and secured back so it can't swing and startle your puppy. Scatter high-value treats near the entrance, just inside the threshold, then progressively further in over multiple short sessions. Let curiosity do the work. Some dogs walk right in. Others need one to two days before they relax around the crate. Both are normal.
Phase 2: Meals Inside (Days 3-5)
Begin feeding your dog's regular meals inside the crate. Start with the bowl in the doorway, then move it farther back with each meal. Once your dog is eating comfortably inside, close the door briefly while they eat — then open it immediately when they finish. Over successive meals, leave the door closed a few minutes longer. If your dog whines, you've moved too fast — go back to keeping the door open during meals.
Phase 3: Closed Door for Minutes (Days 5-7)
With the puppy eating or chewing, gently close the door for a few seconds, then open it before they finish. Build duration slowly: one minute, then three minutes, then five minutes over multiple sessions. Add a stuffed food toy — a Kong filled with peanut butter and frozen works well. The moment the door closes, something good should happen inside.
Phase 4: You Leave the Room (Week 2)
Once your puppy tolerates 5+ minutes with the door closed while you're present, begin stepping out of the room. Start with one minute, then five, then ten. Always return while your dog is still settled — never after distress has started. Reduce duration when you add distance, and build duration back up.
Phase 5: Real-World Crating (Week 3+)
Begin leaving the house for short periods. Start with five minutes, then fifteen, then thirty. Keep departures and returns low-key — no elaborate goodbyes, no excited greetings. Leave a frozen Kong or long-lasting chew to create a positive association with your departure.
The 10:1 Reward Ratio: Aim for roughly ten positive, rewarded crate moments (treats tossed in, meals fed inside, calm praise) for every one time the door is closed or duration is pushed. This keeps the crate overwhelmingly positive.
Common Mistake: Rushing through phases is the single most common cause of crate training failure. A confident puppy may compress two phases into one day. A nervous rescue dog may need a full week on Phase 1 alone. Move at your dog's pace, not the calendar's.
- Start with the crate as just an object — no pressure, door open, treats scattered
- Close the door only when your dog is enthusiastically entering on their own
- Build duration in tiny increments — seconds, then minutes, never jump to hours
- The 10:1 reward ratio keeps the crate overwhelmingly positive
- Each phase takes as long as your dog needs — days for confident puppies, weeks for rescue dogs
Crate Training Schedule
Your dog's bladder sets the ceiling — and it's smaller than you think.
The most commonly used formula is: your puppy's age in months plus one equals the approximate number of hours they can hold their bladder during the day. This is a ceiling, not a target.
| Age | Maximum Daytime Crate Time | Overnight Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 8-10 weeks | 30-60 minutes | Frequent potty breaks; expect 1-2 overnight wakeups |
| 11-14 weeks | 1-2 hours | Most puppies begin sleeping through the night |
| 15-16 weeks | 2-3 hours | Bladder control improving |
| 4-5 months | 3-4 hours | Approaching adult capacity |
| 6+ months | 4-6 hours | Usually through the night |
| Adult (1+ year) | Up to 8 hours | With adequate exercise and potty breaks |
No dog of any age should live in a crate. The crate is a training and safety tool for defined stretches, paired with plenty of exercise, play, potty breaks, and human time out of it. A puppy crated for a full eight-hour workday will not learn to love it, and forcing them to soil their den undermines house-training.
If your schedule requires long absences, use a puppy-proofed playpen or a midday dog walker so crate time stays humane.
Vet Tip: Puppies under six months should never be crated all day while you work without a midday break. A dog walker or pet siter visiting once during the day makes the difference between successful crate training and lasting crate aversion.
- The age-based bladder formula gives you a ceiling, not a target
- 8-week-old puppies can hold it roughly 3 hours — never a full workday
- Adult dogs can manage 6-8 hours, but regular exercise breaks are essential
- Overnight crating requires different expectations than daytime
- Always err on the side of shorter crate sessions
Crate Training an Adult Dog or Rescue Dog
The same 5-phase process applies — but the timeline stretches, and patience matters more.
For adult dogs with no prior crate experience, the introduction protocol for puppies applies directly, just with a longer timeline. Where a puppy might move through Phase 1 in two or three days, an adult dog may need a full week before they're voluntarily entering the crate without hesitation. That's fine.
For rescue dogs with unknown histories, treat the crate as a completely novel introduction. Don't assume they've never seen one — and don't assume they have. If your dog shows hesitation around the crate, start from zero regardless of their age.
If your dog has negative crate associations — perhaps from forced confinement, being crated as punishment, or traumatic shelter experiences — a full reset is necessary. Remove the crate from the environment for three days, then reintroduce it as a completely novel object. Don't ask for entry at all. Just reward any orientation toward it. Nose sniff near crate equals treat. One paw in equals jackpot. Build from zero.
Use the highest-value food you have — cheese, chicken, hot dog, not kibble. A cautious adult dog may not be motivated enough by kibble to overcome uncertainty about the crate. This is not the time to economize on treats.
Adult dogs can typically hold their bladder longer than puppies, so overnight crating is usually manageable from day one for healthy adult dogs. The challenge isn't physical capacity — it's emotional comfort with confinement.
- Adult dogs follow the same 5-phase process but need more time at each phase
- Rescue dogs with unknown history should be treated as a completely new introduction
- If your dog has negative crate associations, remove the crate entirely for 3 days before reintroducing
- Use high-value treats — kibble alone may not motivate a cautious adult dog
- Never force a rescue dog into the crate — voluntary entry is the goal
Overnight Crate Training
The first three nights are the hardest. Here's exactly what to expect and do.
Nighttime is where crate training delivers its biggest payoff — and where most new owners struggle. The key decision is where to put the crate: right beside your bed. A puppy who can see your outline, hear you breathe, and smell you a few feet away settles dramatically faster than one alone in a distant room.
Bedtime Routine (Run This Every Night)
- 3 hours before bed: Last large meal of the day. Pick up the water bowl for the night.
- 60 minutes before bed: Calm play or gentle sniff-walk to burn remaining energy.
- 30 minutes before bed: Dim the lights, lower your voice, stop roughhousing.
- Right before lights-out: Final potty break. Take puppy out on leash, wait for a full empty, then straight inside. No play, no excitement.
The Potty Cry vs The Protest Cry
Understanding this distinction is the most important night-one skill:
- Potty cry: Starts after the puppy has been asleep for a stretch. Urgent, escalating. Includes restlessness, circling, scratching. This is a real need — respond.
- Protest cry: Starts the moment the door closes, before any sleep. Steady, rhythmic whining. This is attention-seeking — wait for a pause before responding.
Night-by-Night Timeline
| Nights 1-3 | Worst of it. Expect crying at lights-out and 1-2 genuine potty wakeups. The bedside crate and routine do the heavy lifting. |
|---|---|
| Nights 4-7 | Crying at bedtime shortens or stops. You may still have one overnight potty trip for a young puppy. |
| Weeks 2-3 | Most puppies settle quickly and stretch sleep toward 5-6 hours. Overnight potty trips drop. |
| Weeks 3-6 | Many puppies sleep through the night. You can begin the gradual crate move-out if desired. |
Never open the crate while your dog is actively whining. Wait for 3-5 seconds of quiet, then open the door or return to the crate. This teaches your dog that quiet, not crying, is what gets them out. The exception: if you genuinely believe the puppy needs a potty break, take them out silently, let them potty, and return them to the crate with minimal fuss.
Vet Tip: Set an alarm for nighttime potty breaks rather than waiting for your puppy to cry. A proactive approach prevents accidents in the crate, which would undermine housetraining. Adjust the alarm time as your puppy matures.
- Put the crate beside your bed for the first 1-2 weeks — proximity reduces panic
- A consistent bedtime routine prevents most nighttime accidents
- Learn to distinguish a potty cry from a protest cry — they need different responses
- The first 3 nights are the worst — most puppies improve dramatically by night 4-7
- Never open the crate while your dog is actively whining — wait for a pause first
Crate Anxiety vs Separation Anxiety
If your dog panics in the crate, the problem might not be the crate at all.
This distinction matters because it determines your entire training approach. Crate anxiety and separation anxiety are different conditions, and treating one as the other can make things worse.
Crate anxiety means your dog panics only when confined — but is fine when left alone free in the house. They may pace, drool, vocalize, or scratch at the crate door, but behave normally when you leave the house and they have freedom of movement. This is a confinement-specific response.
Separation anxiety means your dog panics when left alone regardless of confinement. They may destroy furniture, vocalize excessively, house soil, or hurt themselves whether they're in a crate, a playpen, or loose in the house. The trigger is your absence, not the confinement.
Confinement + separation anxiety is the most severe combination. The dog panics both when confined and when alone. This requires professional help.
| Sign | Crate Anxiety | Separation Anxiety |
|---|---|---|
| Panics in crate with you present | Yes | No |
| Calm when left alone free | Yes | No |
| Destroys items when alone | Rarely | Frequently |
| Vocalizes only in crate | Usually | No — vocalizes when alone too |
| Responds to crate desensitization | Yes | No |
Dogs with true separation anxiety should not be crated without professional guidance. Crating intensifies panic, potentially leading to self-injury, broken teeth, and extreme cortisol spikes. A 2024 case study published in PMC documented a golden doodle whose forced crate training at 8 weeks created lasting confinement anxiety that required clomipramine medication and safe haven training to resolve.
If your dog shows full panic within 30 seconds of departure, stop crate training and consult a veterinary behaviorist. The fix is not more crate time — it's a completely different approach.
Common Mistake: Crating a dog with true separation anxiety can intensify panic, leading to self-injury and broken teeth. If your dog panics when left alone regardless of confinement, they need professional help — not a crate.
- Crate anxiety and separation anxiety are different conditions requiring different approaches
- If your dog is calm when left alone free but panics in the crate, that's crate anxiety
- If your dog panics when left alone regardless of the crate, that's separation anxiety
- Dogs with true separation anxiety need professional help — crating makes it worse
- A forced crate training protocol can create lasting confinement anxiety in previously healthy dogs
Common Mistakes
Using the Crate as Punishment
What people get wrong: Placing the dog in the crate after they've done something wrong — chewing, barking, having an accident. What the evidence says: The crate must always be a positive space. Using it as punishment creates a negative association that makes future crate training nearly impossible. The Generation Pup study found that aversive training techniques at six months of age significantly increased the odds of separation-related behaviors. What to do instead: If you need to give your dog a time-out, calmly encourage them into the crate and reward them for entering — never shove, drag, or push.
Crate Too Large
What people get wrong: Buying a crate sized for the adult dog without a divider, giving a tiny puppy a cavernous space. What the evidence says: A crate that's too large allows a puppy to eliminate in one corner and sleep in another, defeating the housetraining advantage of the den instinct. What to do instead: Buy the adult-sized crate and use a divider panel to block off extra space. Expand as your puppy grows.
Releasing While Whining
What people get wrong: Opening the crate door the moment the puppy cries or barks. What the evidence says: This teaches your dog that crying = door opens. Worse, it creates an intermittent reinforcement schedule — sometimes you respond, sometimes you don't — which is the most powerful behavioral reinforcer known to behavioral science and the hardest to extinguish. What to do instead: Wait for 3-5 seconds of silence before opening the door. Mark the quiet with a calm "good," then open the door.
Rushing to Overnight
What people get wrong: Putting a brand-new puppy in a crate and leaving the house overnight without any prior introduction. What the evidence says: Rushing straight to overnight crating without a proper introduction phase is the single most common reason crate training fails. Puppies that are forced into a crate before building positive associations develop fear and anxiety. What to do instead: Follow the 5-phase introduction. Your puppy should be napping in the crate voluntarily during the day before you attempt overnight crating.
Inconsistent Schedule
What people get wrong: Responding to crate crying differently depending on the time of day, who's home, or how tired the owner is. What the evidence says: Inconsistent responses teach puppies that persistence pays off. If you ignore crying 80% of the time and respond 20% of the time, you've created the intermittent reinforcement schedule mentioned above. What to do instead: The same person should handle crate training the same way every time. Consistency from all family members is critical.
What To Do This Week
Start today. Follow this protocol for the next seven days.
- Day 1-2: Place the crate in a busy family area. Leave the door open. Scatter treats near the entrance and just inside. Feed your dog's meals at the crate doorway — not inside yet.
- Day 3-5: Move the food bowl fully inside the crate. Add your cue word ("crate," "kennel," or "place") as your dog enters. Close the door briefly during meals, then open before they finish.
- Day 5-7: Close the door after a meal for one to five minutes while you sit nearby with a stuffed Kong. If your dog stays calm, extend to 10 minutes.
- Week 2: Leave the room for one to ten minutes with the puppy crated and busy on a chew. Return calmly, no fuss. Begin overnight crating beside your bed with a potty break alarm.
- Week 2-3: Extend daytime stretches toward 30+ minutes. Continue overnight crating. Most puppies begin settling by now.
Timeline expectations: By the end of week one, your dog should be eating meals calmly in the crate with the door closed. By week two to three, your dog should settle in the crate for 30+ minutes. Overnight crating is typically established by weeks three to six.
Frequently Asked Questions
How long does crate training take?
Crate training typically takes two to four weeks for puppies when followed consistently, though some dogs learn in days while rescue dogs may need one to three months. The timeline depends on your dog's personality, age, and past experiences with confinement. The AKC and ASPCA both emphasize that the seven-day minimum timeline is a framework, not a deadline.
Can you crate train an older dog?
Yes. Adult dogs can be crate trained using the same five-phase introduction process, but the timeline stretches. Where a puppy might move through Phase 1 in two or three days, an adult dog may need a full week before voluntarily entering the crate. The key difference is that adult dogs may have established negative associations with confinement that need to be reset — remove the crate for three days, then reintroduce as a novel object.
Is crate training cruel?
When introduced correctly and used appropriately, crate training is not cruel. Dogs introduced to crates gradually, with positive associations and appropriate time limits, typically use their crates voluntarily for rest. The ASPCA recognizes crate training as a humane management tool. The key distinction is that crates must never be used as punishment and dogs should never be crated longer than they can reasonably handle.
What should I put in my dog's crate?
For short sessions under two hours: a washable bed or crate mat, a stuffed Kong or long-lasting chew, and your scent (an old t-shirt). For overnight: the same bed and possibly a safe chew toy. Avoid leaving water unsupervised with young puppies overnight. For heavy chewers, skip loose bedding and use a chew-proof crate mat instead.
How do I stop my dog from crying in the crate?
First, rule out a real need — has your dog been fed, watered, and given a potty break? If physical needs are met, the crying is either protest or anxiety. For protest crying: wait for 3-5 seconds of quiet before responding. For anxiety crying: you've moved too fast — go back to the previous phase and rebuild. Never open the crate while your dog is actively whining — this teaches crying = release.
How do I crate train a rescue dog?
Treat the crate as a completely novel introduction regardless of the dog's age. Start with Phase 1 and spend as many days as needed — some rescue dogs need one to two weeks just to relax around an open crate. Use the highest-value treats available. If the dog shows fear of the crate, remove it for three days, then reintroduce from zero. Never force a rescue dog into the crate.
When should I stop crating my dog?
Most dogs can be trusted unsupervised without a crate by 1.5 to two years of age, after they've demonstrated consistent house training, no destructive chewing, and comfort being alone. Even after you stop crating, many dogs continue using their crate voluntarily — which is the ultimate goal of proper crate training. ---
Key Takeaways
- Crate training works because dogs are den animals by nature — crates provide security, not punishment
- Start with the door open and build duration in minutes — never rush to overnight crating
- The age-based bladder formula (months + 1 = hours) gives you a ceiling, not a target
- Early overnight crate exposure before 16 weeks may reduce separation anxiety risk later
- Crate anxiety and separation anxiety are different conditions — only one is solved by crate training
- If your dog panics in the crate, go back to the previous phase — you moved too fast
- The crate must always be a positive space — never use it for punishment, even once
References
- Multiple authors. The cage as an educational and therapeutic tool for dogs: Results of a dog owner questionnaire survey. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2024. n=1,305 across 23 countries.
- Dale FC, Casey RA, Burn CC et al. Canine separation-related behaviour at six months of age: Dog, owner and early-life risk factors identified using the 'Generation Pup' longitudinal study. Animal Welfare. 2024;33:e60. 145 puppies.
- Mueller et al. Dogs with separation-related problems show a 'less pessimistic' cognitive bias during treatment with fluoxetine and a behaviour modification plan. BMC Veterinary Research. 2015.
- King et al. Treatment of separation anxiety in dogs with clomipramine: results from a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 2000. n=95.
- Dale FC, Casey RA, Burn CC. Efficacy of advice for preventing separation-related behaviors in puppies: A video trial and separation test. Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 2025. Double-blind RCT.
- Kinsman R et al. Sleep duration and behaviours: A descriptive analysis of a cohort of dogs up to 12 months of age. Animals. 2020. n=2,332.
